Ethics--Greek Tradition

Read Plato and Aristotle as a refutation of 2 contemporary ethical theories:

Ethical Relativism

There are no absolute moral standards

There are no moral standards applicable to all persons, at all places, in all times

There is no unique, objective meaning for moral terms; "right," "wrong," "good," and "bad" do not mean just one thing.

If Culture A maintains Act A is morally right and Culture B maintains the same Act A is morally wrong--both statements are true.

Sources:

Logical empiricism--statements about God and statements involving moral terms cannot be verified or falsified. "This is the right way to act" simply means "I approve of this."

Difficulty: The standard for judging meaning (falsifiability) cannot be verified or falsified.

Anthropology--cultural relativism

Difficulties:

1. "Truth" is not determined by agreement

2. "Bothersome/counterintuitive" implications

Universally condemned acts

There can be no moral comparisons between/among societies

There can be no moral comparisons between/among individuals

There can be no moral progress

Ethical Egoism (vs. Altrusim)

"Wall Street" (vs. Mother Theresa)

Right acts (our duty) promote our self-interest/happiness in the long run

Classical hedonists: "happiness consists in procuring the well-being of the body and in maintaining a psyche free from disturbance"

Contemporary hedonism: "eat, drink and be merry" or "get rich and powerful"

But we are social beings:

we need the help of others

we derive pleasure and happiness from associating with others

So--

We have duties to others derivative from the duty to pursue our own self-interest and happiness

Right/wrong depends on actual consequences; we don't know if we "did the right thing" until all the consequences are in

 

Plato, Crito

We ought never--

act unjustly

repay injustice with injustice

do evil to anyone

repay evil with evil

We ought to keep our just agreements--

to abide by the laws of the society in which we voluntarily choose to live

Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics

"Good" means "happiness" and "happiness" is not "pleasure"

Everything has a proper function. When a thing is performing its proper function, it is said to be a good thing of that kind.

The function of a shoemaker is to made shoes; a good shoemaker makes shoes well

The function of a heart is to pump blood; a good heart performs this function well

The function of a person is to live the life of reason; a good man/woman will practice the life of reason over a lifetime. The good person will do this by actualizing his/her potential. Happiness will accompany this good life.

The "right" act involves two spheres--

Moral sphere

There are some acts which could never lead to happiness (e.g. murder, treachery, adultery) but, on the whole acts that lead to happiness will be characterized by being a mean between 2 extremes

Virtue is produced by repeated acts of virtue

Intellectual sphere

No person can be completely happy without the exercise of his/her reason to seek a complete understanding (philosophy, mathematics, physics)

Basic needs must be satisfied for a person to operate in these 2 spheres

Persons are social animals; there must be a good social order for persons to operate in these 2 spheres