Immanuel Kant, Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals

"Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification except a good will."

Things commonly thought to be good--money, love, knowledge, power--can be misused, and, therefore, are not good without qualification.

Kant maintained that a good will is one that chooses to perform an action solely because it is intrinsically right and not because of some advantage (happiness) that the action might bring to oneself or to others. This is a rejection of teleology in favor of deontology.

Kant distinguishes categorical from hypothetical imperatives. Hypothetical imperatives are actions one must take to bring about a certain result (training to become an athelete). Categorical imperatives are actions that one must take because they are good in themselves and not merely good as a means to a further end. These are the moral imperatives.

Our conduct is guided by maxims--subjective principles that set rules for actions. The foundation of Kant's moral philosophy is respect for law. And the main characteristic of law is its universality. Hence our maxims for (right) action must be ones that can be universalized.

 

This provides a test to which one can put all subjective maxims. One has merely to ask whether she could will that the maxim become a universal law.

I. Form of the categorical imperative: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."

Examples:

False promise

Suicide

One cannot make exceptions for oneself on the name of self-interest or greed.

 

II. Content of the categorical imperative. Kant gave another formulation of the categorical imperative that provides content. How are we to treat ourselves and other persons?

Rational beings are "ends in themselves." It is immoral to treat persons as a means, an object for your own purposes. "So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only."

Examples:

False promises

Suicide

III. Dignity: In the realm of ends everything has either a price or a dignity. Whatever has a price can be replaced by something else as its equivalent; on the other hand, whatever is above all price, and therefore admits of no equivalent, has a dignity.

Example:

Privacy

 

 

Compare: Martin Buber's distinction:

I-It

I-Thou.